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Chapter 1 General Linguistics:The Scope of the Subject 1

1.1 The nature of language 1

1.1.1 What is language? 1

1.1.2 Design/Distinctive features of language 4

1.1.2.1 Arbitrariness 5

1.1.2.2 Linearity 6

1.1.2.3 Discreteness 6

1.1.2.4 Duality 7

1.1.2.5 Creativity/Productivity/Open-endedness 8

1.1.2.6 Displacement 9

1.1.2.7 Interchangeability 11

1.1.2.8 Cultural transmission 11

1.1.2.9 Transferability 13

1.1.3 Human language:endowment or accomplishment 14

1.1.4 Language,mind and social life 15

1.2 General linguistics:the scientific/systematic study of language 16

1.2.1 What is general linguistics concerned with? 16

1.2.2 Approaches to language 18

1.2.3 The scope of linguistics 20

1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 24

1.3.1 Prescriptive grammar and descriptive grammar 24

1.3.2 Langue and parole 24

1.3.3 Competence and performance 25

1.3.4 Etic and emic 27

1.4 The data of linguistics 28

Appendix 29

Chapter 2 Phonetics:The Sounds of Language 32

2.1 What is phonetics concerned with? 32

2.1.1 The importance of phonetics 33

2.1.2 Major branches of phonetics 34

2.2 Mechanism of pronunciation 35

2.2.1 Vocal/Speech organs:the physical aspects of pronunciation 36

2.2.2 Segmentation:consonants and vowels 38

2.3 The articulation of English consonant sounds 40

2.4 The articulation of English vowel sounds 49

2.5 Transcription of sounds 52

Appendix 53

Chapter 3 Phonology:The Sound Patterns of Language 58

3.1 What is phonology concerned with? 58

3.1.1 The difference between phonetics and phonology 58

3.1.2 What is phonological theory intended to account for? 59

3.2 Phoneme:the recurring element in the sound system of a language 61

3.2.1 Phone,phoneme and allophone 61

3.2.2 Minimal pair 62

3.2.3 Phonemic contrast,complementary distribution and free variation 63

3.2.4 Distinctive feature 64

3.3 Syllable:the permitted patterns of arrangements of the phonological elements 65

3.3.1 Sequential rules—phonological order 65

3.3.2 The structure of syllable in English 66

3.3.3 Sound patterning in English poetry 70

3.4 Coarticulation:phonological processes in connected speech 73

3.4.1 Assimilation rule 73

3.4.2 Feature addition rule 75

3.4.3 Deletion/Elision rule 75

3.5 Supra-segmental features 76

3.5.1 Stress 77

3.5.2 Pitch variation 81

Chapter 4 Grammar:Morphology 84

4.1 Grammar 84

4.1.1 What is grammar? 84

4.1.2 Two dimensions of grammar:syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations 85

4.2 Some basic terms/concepts in morphology 86

4.2.1 Morpheme,morph,allomorph 87

4.2.1.1 Morpheme 87

4.2.1.2 Morph 90

4.2.1.3 Allomorph 90

4.2.2 Affix,root,stem,base 91

4.2.2.1 Affix 91

4.2.2.2 Root 92

4.2.2.3 Stem 92

4.2.2.4 Base 93

4.2.3 Lexeme,word form,lexical entry,word,lexicon 93

4.2.3.1 Lexeme 93

4.2.3.2 Word form 93

4.2.3.3 Lexical entry 94

4.2.3.4 Word 94

4.2.3.4.1 How to define word? 94

4.2.3.4.2 Part of speech/word class 96

4.2.3.5 Lexicon 98

4.2.3.6 Token and type 99

4.2.3.7 Paradigm 99

4.2.3.8 Suppletion and truncation 99

4.3 Idiom 100

4.3.1 What is idiom? 100

4.3.2 Two basic characteristics of an idiom 102

4.4 Collocation 103

4.4.1 What is collocation? 103

4.4.2 The importance of collocation 104

4.5 Allomorphy/Morpho-phonology/Morpho-phonemics 107

4.5.1 Phonological conditioning 108

4.5.2 Morphological/Grammatical conditioning 108

4.6 Word-formation processes 109

4.6.1 Derivation 109

4.6.2 Compounding 112

4.6.3 Other means of word-formation 115

4.6.3.1 Conversion 115

4.6.3.2 Acronyms/Initialisms 116

4.6.3.3 Clipping 117

4.6.3.4 Back-formation 118

4.6.3.5 Blending 118

Chapter 5 Grammar:Syntax 120

5.1 What does syntax deal with? 120

5.2 The subject matter of syntax:sentence 121

5.2.1 What is sentence? 121

5.2.2 Classification of sentence 122

5.2.3 The extension of sentence 122

5.2.4 Syntactic relations 124

5.2.5 The relationship between sentence components or between sentences:hypotactic and paratactic relations 125

5.3 The traditional approach 126

5.3.1 Grammatical/Syntactic categories 128

5.3.2 Concord and government 134

5.4 The structural approach 136

5.4.1 Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations 136

5.4.2 Immediate constituents 137

5.4.2.1 Construction 137

5.4.2.2 Immediate constituent analysis(IC analysis for short) 137

5.4.3 Endocentric and exocentric constructions 140

5.5 The generative approach 141

5.5.1 Competence and performance 143

5.5.2 Criteria for judging grammars 144

5.5.3 Phrase structure rules 144

5.5.4 Lexical insertion rules and selectional restriction rules 148

5.5.5 Transformational aspect 151

5.5.6 Deep and surface structures 154

5.5.7 The standard theory and after 155

Chapter 6 Semantics 158

6.1 What is semantics concerned with? 158

6.2 Some views on"meaning" 160

6.2.1 The naming theory/The referential theory 161

6.2.2 The conceptualist view 162

6.2.3 Behaviorism 164

6.2.4 Contextualism 165

6.2.5 Functionalism 166

6.2.6 Mentalism 166

6.3 Different meanings of meaning 166

6.3.1 Conceptual meaning 167

6.3.2 Associative meaning 167

6.3.2.1 Connotative meaning 168

6.3.2.2 Social meaning/Stylistic meaning 168

6.3.2.3 Affective meaning 169

6.3.2.4 Reflected meaning 169

6.3.2.5 Collocative meaning 169

6.3.3 Thematic meaning 170

6.4 Word meaning/Lexical meaning 170

6.4.1 Synonymy 171

6.4.2 Homonymy 177

6.4.3 Hyponymy 178

6.4.4 Antonymy 179

6.4.5 Polysemy 181

6.4.6 Semantic adalysis/Componential analysis—a way to analyze lexical meaning 182

6.5 Sentence meaning 184

6.5.1 Predication analysis—a way to analyze sentence meaning 185

6.5.2 Selection restriction 186

6.5.3 Sense relations between sentences 188

Chapter 7 Pragmatics 190

7.1 What is pragmatics? 190

7.1.1 Definition of pragmatics 190

7.1.2 Distinction between semantics and pragmatics 192

7.1.3 Context 193

7.2 Deictics 194

7.3 Speech act theory 197

7.3.1 Performatives and constatives 198

7.3.2 Speech acts 200

7.3.3 Types of illocutionary acts 203

7.3.4 Indirect speech acts 205

7.4 The cooperative principle and implicature 207

7.4.1 What is implicature? 207

7.4.2 The cooperative principle 209

7.4.3 Violation of the maxims and the production of conversational implicature 212

7.5 The politeness principle 215

Bibliography(For chapter 1-7) 219

Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics 223

8.1 Introduction 223

8.2 Definition and relation to linguistics 223

8.3 Scope of sociolinguistic study 224

8.4 Code,code-switching and code-mixing 224

8.5 Different approaches to code-switching studies 226

8.5.1 Linguistic approach 227

8.5.1.1 Language constraints 228

8.5.1.2 Inter-sentential,intra-sentential and tag code-switching 229

8.5.1.3 Alternational and insertional code-switching 230

8.5.2 Sociolinguistic approach 231

8.5.2.1 Social functions 231

8.5.2.2 Social motivations 233

8.5.2.3 Power and solidarity 235

8.5.2.4 Communicative strategy 236

8.5.3 Functional linguistics approach 238

8.5.4 Other approaches 240

8.5.5 Studies of code-switching in different discourse genres 240

8.6 Summary and evaluation 241

References 243

Chapter 9 Systemic-Functional Linguistics 248

9.1 Introduction 248

9.2 Metafunctions 249

9.2.1 Ideational metafunction 249

9.2.2 Interpersonal metafunction 255

9.2.3 Textual metafunction 256

9 3 Register and genre 258

9.4 Context 260

9.5 Application of systemic-functional linguistics 262

9.5.1 General introduction 262

9.5.2 A case study 262

9.6 Summary 264

Appendix 265

References 266

Chapter 10 Discourse Analysis 268

10.1 Introduction 268

10.2 A note on terminology 268

10.3 Different approaches to discourse analysis 269

10.4 An example of functional discourse analysis 270

10.4.1 Introduction 270

10.4.2 Analysis of the cohesive devices 271

10.4.2.1 Reference 271

10.4.2.2 Substitution 272

10.4.2.3 Ellipsis 273

10.4.2.4 Conjunction 274

10.4.2.5 Lexical cohesion 275

10.4.3 Concluding remark 277

10.5 Summary and implications 277

Appendix 278

References 279

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