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INTRODUCTION 1

Chapter Ⅰ．A Glance at the History of Linguistics 1

Chapter Ⅱ．Subject Matter and Scope of Linguistics;Its Relations with Other Sciences 6

Chapter Ⅲ．Object of Linguistics 7

1．Definition of Language 7

2．Place of Language in the Facts of Speech 11

3．Place of Language in Human Facts;Semiology 15

Chapter Ⅳ．Linguistics of Language and Linguistics of Speaking 17

Chapter Ⅴ．Internal and External Elements of Language 20

Chapter Ⅵ．Graphic Representation of Language 23

1．Need for Studying the Subject 23

2．Influence of Writing;Reason for Its Ascendancy over the Spoken Form 23

3．Systems of Writing 25

4．Reasons for the Discrepancy between Writing and Pronunciation 27

5．Results of the Discrepancy 29

Chapter Ⅶ．Phonology 32

1．Definition 32

2．Phonological Writing 33

3．Validity of Evidence Furnished by Writing 34

APPENDIX PRINCIPLES OF PHONOLOGY 38

Chapter Ⅰ．Phonological Species 38

1．Definition of the Phoneme 38

2．The Vocal Apparatus and its Functioning 41

3．Classification of Sounds According to Their Oral Articulation 44

Chapter Ⅱ．Phonemes in the Spoken Chain 49

1．Need for Studying Sounds in the Spoken Chain 49

2．Implosion and Explosion 51

3．Different Combinations of Explosions and Implosions in the Chain 54

4．Syllabic Boundary and Vocalic Peak 57

5．Criticism of Theories of Syllabication 58

6．Length of Implosion and Explosion 60

7．Phonemes of Aperture 4;Diphthongs;Questions about Transcription 60

Editor＇s Note 62

PART ONE GENERAL PRINCIPLES 65

Chapter Ⅰ．Nature of the Linguistic Sign 65

1．Sign,Signified,Signifier 65

2．Principle Ⅰ:The Arbitrary Nature of the Sign 67

3．Principle Ⅱ:The Linear Nature of the Signifier 70

Chapter Ⅱ．Immutability and Mutability of the Sign 71

1．Immutability 71

2．Mutability 74

Chapter Ⅲ．Static and Evolutionary Linguistics 79

1．Inner Duality of All Sciences Concerned with Values 79

2．Inner Duality and the History of Linguistics 81

3．Inner Duality Illustrated by Examples 83

4．The Difference Between the Two Classes Illustrated by Comparisons 87

5．The Two Linguistics Contrasted According to Their Methods and Principles 90

6．Synchronic Law and Diachronic Law 91

7．Is There a Panchronic Viewpoint? 95

8．Consequences of the Confusing of Synchrony and Diachrony 96

9．Conclusions 98

PART TWO SYNCHRONIC LINGUISTICS 101

Chapter Ⅰ．Generalities 101

Chapter Ⅱ．The Concrete Entities of Language 102

1．Definition of Entity and Unit 102

2．Method of Delimitation 104

3．Practical Difficulties of Delimitation 105

4．Conclusion 106

Chapter Ⅲ．Identities,Realities,Values 107

Chapter Ⅳ．Linguistic Value 111

1．Language as Organized Thought Coupled with Sound 111

2．Linguistic Value from a Conceptual Viewpoint 114

3．Linguistic Value from a Material Viewpoint 117

4．The Sign Considered in Its Totality 120

Chapter Ⅴ．Syntagmatic and Associative Relations 122

1．Definitions 122

2．Syntagmatic Relations 124

3．Associative Relations 125

Chapter Ⅵ．Mechanism of Language 127

1．Syntagmatic Solidarities 127

2．Simultaneous Functioning of the Two Types of Groupings 128

3．Absolute and Relative Arbitrariness 131

Chapter Ⅶ．Grammar and Its Subdivisions 134

1．Definitions:Traditional Divisions 134

2．Rational Divisions 136

Chapter Ⅷ．Role of Abstract Entities in Grammar 137

PART THREE DIACHRONIC LINGUISTICS 140

Chapter Ⅰ．Generalities 140

Chapter Ⅱ．Phonetic Changes 140

1．Their Absolute Regularity 143

2．Conditioned Phonetic Changes 144

3．Points on Method 145

4．Causes of Phonetic Changes 147

5．The Effect of Phonetic Changes Is Unlimited 151

Chapter Ⅲ．Grammatical Consequences of Phonetic Evolution 153

1．Breaking of the Grammatical Bond 153

2．Effacement of the Structure of Words 154

3．There are No Phonetic Doublets 155

4．Alternation 157

5．Laws of Alternation 158

6．Alternation and Grammatical Bond 160

Chapter Ⅳ．Analogy 161

1．Definition and Examples 161

2．Analogical Phenomena Are Not Changes 162

3．Analogy as a Creative Force in Language 165

Chapter Ⅴ．Analogy and Evolution 168

1．How an Analogical Innovation Enters Language 168

2．Analogical Innovations as Symptoms of Changes in Interpretation 169

3．Analogy as a Renovating and Conservative Force 171

Chapter Ⅵ．Folk Etymology 173

Chapter Ⅶ．Agglutination 176

1．Definition 176

2．Agglutination and Analogy 177

Chapter Ⅷ．Diachronic Units,Identities,and Realities 179

Appendices to Parts Three and Four 173

1．Subjective and Objective Analysis 173

2．Subjective Analysis and the Defining of Subunits 185

3．Etymology 189

PART FOUR GEOGRAPHICAL LINGUISTICS 191

Chapter Ⅰ．Concerning the Diversity of Languages 191

Chapter Ⅱ．Complications of Geographical Diversity 193

1．Coexistence of Several Languages at the Same Point 193

2．Literary Language and Local Idiom 195

Chapter Ⅲ．Causes of Geographical Diversity 197

1．Time,the Basic Cause 197

2．Effect of Time on continuous Territory 199

3．Dialects Have No Natural Boundaries 201

4．Languages Have No Natural Boundaries 203

Chapter Ⅳ．Spread of Linguistic Waves 205

1．Intercourse and Provincialism 205

2．The Two Forces Reduced to One 207

3．Linguistic Differentiation on Separate Territories 208

PART FIVE CONCERNING RETROSPECTIVE LINGUISTICS 212

Chapter Ⅰ．The Two Perspectives of Diachronic Linguistics 212

Chapter Ⅱ．The Oldest Language and the Prototype 215

Chapter Ⅲ．Reconstructions 218

1．Their Nature and Aim 218

2．Relative Accuracy of Reconstructions 220

Chapter Ⅳ．The Contribution of Language to Anthropology and Prehistory 222

1．Language and Race 222

2．Ethnic Unity 223

3．Linguistic Paleontology 224

4．Linguistic Type and Mind of the Social Group 227

Chapter Ⅴ．Language Families and Linguistic Types 228

Index 233

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